So... What's the big deal?
Since colonization, American gray wolves have been persecuted, vilified, and misunderstood. Funded by a US government program, “wolfers” and bounty hunters eliminated the gray wolf from most of the lower 48 states by the 1940s. During the wolves’ absence, ungulate populations like elk and deer skyrocketed to unnatural, often unhealthy populations. Discussion began about reintroducing the gray wolf. After a lengthy, heated debate, wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park and protected areas of Idaho and Montana. But not everyone was happy about the wolves’ return. The fight for and against wolves has not ended; the gray wolf is perhaps the most controversial animal in America.
ATTITUDES ABOUT WOLVES
Though there are varying attitudes, most Native American tribes revered the wolf for its hunting ability and loyalty to family, particularly Great Plains tribes. Tribes such as the Sioux mimicked wolf hunting strategies, and the Navajo called upon the wolf spirit to heal the sick and injured. Before hunts or battles, Apache warriors danced and sang to envelop the spirit of the wolf. In the far north, the Naskapi believed that giant wolves guarded caribou afterlife, attacking greedy hunters who came too close. In one Omaha legend, a wolf helps lead an injured warrior home and protects him from danger. The Cherokee believed that to kill a wolf was to bring misfortune and shame upon the killer.
However, Native American cultures were some of the few that revered wolves. From the "big bad wolf" myth to Aesop's fables, wolves in Indo-European and many Asian cultures were perceived mostly as negative. Fenrir, the giant wolf and son of Loki, was said to wreak havoc and death. In Zoroastrian texts, the wolf was created by the evil spirit Ahriman. In Finland, nearly every historic literature describes wolves as fearsome and dangerous. "Susi" in Finnish means both "useless thing" and "wolf".
Abrahamic religions seem to be the most negative toward wolves. The Bible is filled with symbols of the wolf as dark or evil, a manifestation of Satan, and as an opposite of the lambs in Jesus's flock. The Malleus Maleficarum, written by the clergy to warn against witchcraft, used the Bible to justify that wolves were either sent by God to punish sinners, or agents of Satan. In Dante's Inferno, a she-wolf represents greed. In the Qur'an, wolves are said to devour sinners.
Not all western cultures considered wolves to be evil. The famous story of Romulus and Remus credits a she-wolf to the survival of the brothers and the building of Rome. Romans also refrained from killing wolves, and did not hunt them for sport. In Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Books, Mowgli is raised by a pack of wolves, specifically Raksha. Francis of Assisi was said to have befriended a wolf and made a peaceful pact with it so it would not prey upon sheep, and people would not kill it. Slavic poems described wolves as symbols of fearlessness, and naming a newborn baby "Vuk" would keep away witches that were frightened of the wolves. See more about these cultural myths and histories (and compared with hyenas) in this blog post.
Abrahamic religions seem to be the most negative toward wolves. The Bible is filled with symbols of the wolf as dark or evil, a manifestation of Satan, and as an opposite of the lambs in Jesus's flock. The Malleus Maleficarum, written by the clergy to warn against witchcraft, used the Bible to justify that wolves were either sent by God to punish sinners, or agents of Satan. In Dante's Inferno, a she-wolf represents greed. In the Qur'an, wolves are said to devour sinners.
Not all western cultures considered wolves to be evil. The famous story of Romulus and Remus credits a she-wolf to the survival of the brothers and the building of Rome. Romans also refrained from killing wolves, and did not hunt them for sport. In Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Books, Mowgli is raised by a pack of wolves, specifically Raksha. Francis of Assisi was said to have befriended a wolf and made a peaceful pact with it so it would not prey upon sheep, and people would not kill it. Slavic poems described wolves as symbols of fearlessness, and naming a newborn baby "Vuk" would keep away witches that were frightened of the wolves. See more about these cultural myths and histories (and compared with hyenas) in this blog post.
History of American Wolves
Before European colonization, wolves roamed extensively throughout the lower 48 states; an estimated 250,000-500,000 were said to live in the United States. Although wolf genetics are still highly debated, it is pretty certain that more than one subspecies of wolf occupied the lower 48 at about the time of European colonization. More discussion on that debate can be found here, but the three most relevant subspecies for the current wolf debate are C.l.occidentalis (McKenzie Valley), C.l.nubilis (Great Plains/Buffalo), and C.l.irremotus (Southern Rocky Mountain).
Nearly all American settlers who moved westward considered wolves to be an enemy, a symbol of the wilderness that they must conquer in order to accomplish manifest destiny. As early as 1630 in Massachusetts, bounties encouraged free-range killing of wolves. As technology and industry grew, so did the livestock business, which amplified the war against wolves. President Theodore Roosevelt, who is considered one of America's greatest nature lovers, said wolves were "the beast of waste and desolation" and pushed for their eradication in order to "protect" species like elk and moose.
The slaughter of wolves was brutal and fierce. They were shot, trapped, roped (lassoed as a team until choked out), burned alive, poisoned, and tortured. "Wolfers" were hired both by ranchers and by the government to systematically kill wolves. The most common technique was to shoot elk or buffalo and then drip strychnine on the carcasses. They would return the next day for dozens of dead wolves, then skin them and leave the carcasses. Sometimes, in order to collect more bounty, wolfers would kill pups at dens but leave the mother to breed again, thus ensuring a steady stream of income.
The American government officially mandated a wolf eradication program in the 1900s. Between 1915 and the end of the bounty in 1942, US government-hired officials killed over 24,000 wolves. By then, wolves had been eradicated from nearly every mile of the lower 48 states. Only a handful managed to survive deep in northern Minnesota and Michigan. No other species in history has been killed purposefully for the goal of extinction.
The American government officially mandated a wolf eradication program in the 1900s. Between 1915 and the end of the bounty in 1942, US government-hired officials killed over 24,000 wolves. By then, wolves had been eradicated from nearly every mile of the lower 48 states. Only a handful managed to survive deep in northern Minnesota and Michigan. No other species in history has been killed purposefully for the goal of extinction.
AFTERMATH
Without one of its keystone species, the ecosystems in the American west changed for the worse. Ungulate populations boomed, and elk destroyed aspen and oak growth due to overgrazing. Originally, rangers manually controlled elk populations. However, hunters started complaining about lowered hunting opportunities, and the government forced the halt of elk control. Elk populations kept rising, to unnatural and unhealthy levels, although hunters claimed that such an increase signified their vital contribution to wildlife conservation. Without wolves, coyote populations skyrocketed, which depleted rodent populations, which in turn lowered raptor populations. This is an example of trophic cascade. The role of wolves in trophic cascade is still in high debate, especially considering the varying landscapes and ecosystems in which wolves inhabit, but the importance of that role is generally agreed upon.
THE WOLVES' RETURN
In 1974, the Endangered Species Act was passed. The recovery of the bald eagle spurred public interest in threatened wildlife, and wolves were reconsidered to be brought back to the lower 48, starting with Yellowstone National Park. This was not a universal opinion. Many, mostly ranchers and hunters who feared wolves would decimate ungulates, were vehemently opposed to wolf reintroduction. Finally, in 1995, after a lengthy battle, wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park and surrounding protected areas in Idaho and Montana. Despite continuous criticism and illegal poaching, the project was a success. Wolves have recovered and spread to 8 different states- Idaho, Montana, Wyoming (Rocky Mountain region), Oregon, Washington (Pacific region), Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin (Great Lakes region). Although wolves from the 1995 reintroduction have spread across borders, particularly in the eastern Pacific states, most of the wolves in the Great Lakes and Pacific region have spread naturally from Canada or remnants of Minnesota survivors under the protection under the Endangered Species Act.
There are now between 4,500 and 5,500 gray wolves in the lower 48. They have been removed from the Endangered Species List in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, though politics and lawsuits have bounced the legal protection of wolves back and forth for a decade. State management, whilst still under ESA, has been granted to all eight "wolf states". For the three Rocky states, removal from the ESA means that the states have full legal control of the wolves, which usually results in much higher wolf mortality from hunting and increased lethal management.
Unfortunately, the price for wolf reintroduction were steep. In order to keep control of their wolf populations, states only need to prove 150 wolves with 15 breeding pairs are alive. In Wyoming, because of Yellowstone, the number is only 100 and 10, respectively. This makes it very easy for states to decrease their wolf populations legally- often, it's done to appease constituents in political bids. And they have.
Currently, wolves occupy about 10% of their historic home range, 50% or more of which is still deemed habitable wolf territory. In 2019, wolves have been documented in Colorado and California, but their permeance is still questionable. Reintroduction of wolves in Colorado is currently a very heated issue, with pro-wolf folks arguing that wolves are native to the state and that Colorado is a "link" in states with occupied wolf territory, and anti-wolf folks arguing that the "wrong wolf" was reintroduced to the Rocky Mountains and that wolves are a danger to livestock and a danger to people.
There are now between 4,500 and 5,500 gray wolves in the lower 48. They have been removed from the Endangered Species List in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, though politics and lawsuits have bounced the legal protection of wolves back and forth for a decade. State management, whilst still under ESA, has been granted to all eight "wolf states". For the three Rocky states, removal from the ESA means that the states have full legal control of the wolves, which usually results in much higher wolf mortality from hunting and increased lethal management.
Unfortunately, the price for wolf reintroduction were steep. In order to keep control of their wolf populations, states only need to prove 150 wolves with 15 breeding pairs are alive. In Wyoming, because of Yellowstone, the number is only 100 and 10, respectively. This makes it very easy for states to decrease their wolf populations legally- often, it's done to appease constituents in political bids. And they have.
Currently, wolves occupy about 10% of their historic home range, 50% or more of which is still deemed habitable wolf territory. In 2019, wolves have been documented in Colorado and California, but their permeance is still questionable. Reintroduction of wolves in Colorado is currently a very heated issue, with pro-wolf folks arguing that wolves are native to the state and that Colorado is a "link" in states with occupied wolf territory, and anti-wolf folks arguing that the "wrong wolf" was reintroduced to the Rocky Mountains and that wolves are a danger to livestock and a danger to people.